Jin and Li (2003) studied the behaviour of young concrete by using mineral admixtures such as silica fumes, slag, fly ash and metakaolin. The heights of RE walls varied between 5 and 13m. Different types of soils were found at different locations including loose silty sands, soft clays, and soft mining slimes to depths of 6, 15, and 18m, respectively. A large volume of material had slipped from the highway embankment and destroyed the upper part of the Carinya Lodge. Concrete with compressive strength of 100150MPa can be obtained by using SF and SP together. However, selection of these methods for a particular site needs to be done after assessing the soil properties, soil stratification, and the boundary conditions very carefully.

The durability of concrete improves by addition of SF through reducing permeability and refining pore structure. In an investigation of an embankment constructed in Lakeville in the USA, the levels of all metals in the groundwater were below the standard limits prescribed for secondary drinking water. Ganesan et al. (2001) reported the improvement in the concrete resistance to the chloride ion penetration high-volume by using fly ash cements. Bavita Bhardwaj, Pardeep Kumar, in Construction and Building Materials, 2017. Natural zeolites formula is (Sedlmajer et al., 2015): A significant change occurs in the zeolite properties such as hydrothermal stability or hydrophobicity by increasing the Si/Al ratio. A huge amount of rice husk is produced during milling of paddy from rice milling industry, which is usually used as a fuel in the boilers for processing of paddy and power generation. However, chemical reaction between MK and hydrating cement forms modified paste microstructure. In particular, the structures construction program had multiple critical paths where several bridges were constructed in parallel, followed by the next group of two or three bridges and so on. A cross-section through the site is shown in Figure 1. For all mixtures, flowability was lost with hauling time, although the rate of slump flow reduction was higher for mixes with higher amount of NZ.

The design settlement criteria were tight at bridge abutments in order to provide a smooth transition from the embankments to the structure, as well as to prevent soil displacements loading the abutment piles. The engineering properties of MK are controlled as it is not a by-product. The New Pantai Expressway is a privatized highway in Malaysia. The steep hillsides of Hong Kong, heavily populated because of land shortages, are an example. This guideline is the most complete reference for designing EPS embankments and considers internal stability, external stability, seismic stability, hydrostatic uplift, etc. When filled with soil and composting materials, often containing rubber granulates, and planted with hardy seedlings, tyres provide green space in otherwise barren areas. The common practice to obtain self-consolidation behaviour in SCC is the limitation of the coarse aggregates content, reduction of maximum size of aggregates, and use of SP (Khayat, 1999). 10.2(d). The determination of liquefaction potential due to an earthquake is a complex geotechnical engineering problem. Shear strength in cohesionless soil is mainly imparted due to the friction produced between soil grains. A summary of various ground-improvement/treatment methods as liquefaction countermeasures are presented in Table 11.2. The piezometric surface in this analysis was chosen to be located at 2m below the surface of the soil on the slope and 4m below the surface of the roadway. Figure 6.32. Furthermore, rising environmental concerns have made Government to make strict regulations to keep check on waste disposal from industries and make them accountable to remediation of wastes. In the floodplain, 18 bridges and three large concrete culverts were constructed along with embankments ranging from approximately 2 to 6m in height on soft soils ranging in depth from 2 to 30m. Historically on the existing highway, embankments had failed at heights on the order of 3m and settlements on the order of 3.5m had occurred over approximately 50 years. 10.2(c). Some of these properties, which make rubber, right and proper for geotechnical use according to CEN Workshop Agreement (CWA) 14243-2002 (CWA, 2002) are listed in Table9.3. Scott, J., Loveridge, F., & O'Brien, A. S. (2007). Shear strength in cohesionless soil is mainly imparted due to the friction produced between soil grains. S.N. Furthermore, Use of ultra-lightweight geofoam to reduce stresses in highway culvert extension by Sun et al. Therefore, by proving the hardened properties of MK concrete, it will have promising advantages compared to other cement replacement materials (Nazeer and Arun Kumar, 2014). Keller Ground Engineering (KGE) was selected as the specialist ground improvement subcontractor to the Alliance. Water was pumped into the drainage layer behind the retaining wall and piezometers placed in the embankment fill, but all the piezometers except one showed little response to the introduced water, indicating that the drains were channeling water away from the back of the retaining wall quite effectively. It gave the designers the ability to confirm the behavior of critical components of the design. Moreover, tyres can be used in drainage systems for biogas: to prepare the base, stabilise the sloping walls, protect piping, and provide a protective wall around central evacuation pipes and preferential channels for improved hydraulic flow (http://www.etra.au.com). As mentioned earlier, the most typical applications of EPS geofoam in the civil engineering industry include road construction and widening, bridge abutments, culverts and pipes, and retaining structures; these will be discussed further in the following sections. Once this raised the water table to a high enough level, the catastrophic failure that occurred could take place. None of these proposed triggers for the slip seemed to conclusively provide an explanation for what had occurred. Tension cracks in the pavement, slip surfaces found in the portion of the highway excavated after the slip, and the opening of joints in culverts provided evidence that this was so. Temperature, pressure, reaction time and the Si/Al ratio, Ca2+, Na+, K+ and partial H2O pressure are the key factors in the formation of the individual species of zeolite. Therefore, some embankments had to be constructed rapidly, whereas others had in excess of 12 months prior to bridge construction. Due to the increased paste volume, the powder content in SCC is considerably higher compared to the traditional concrete. The calculated critical circle and the actual slip surface are shown in Figure 5, where both rupture surfaces can be seen to be in approximately the same location. Smelting in the silicon and ferro-silicon industry form Silica fume (SF). A joint in the pipe just adjacent to the top of the slip is shown in Figure 6. There was only one survivor from those who were in the two lodges that night. RHA production is estimated to be about 70 million tons each year all around the world. Natural water content, wn=70100% and unit weight, t=1416kN/m3. Test results showed that up to 30% of RHA could be advantageously blended with cement without adversely affecting the strength and permeability properties of concrete. In total, four locations were treated using vibro replacement to support highway embankments and RE walls. Hence, regular updating and modification of the charts are highly required. By melting iron ore and reducing into molten pig iron in blast furnaces, slag forms. The size of the vacuum consolidation area was 45m30m. Vertical drains were installed up to 26m deep in a square grid pattern at intervals of 0.8m0.8m. A highway embankment of about 6.1m high was constructed at a rate of 14.1cm/day. Where settlement needed to be controlled and less time was available, DSM, dynamic replacement, or stone columns were adopted. They show that geofoam is suitable for a wide range of geologic conditions, although the costs might be up to threefold that of conventional fill materials (without considering installation costs) [10]. Due to the significant increase in pore water pressure produced during an earthquake, the contact force between the soil grains is lost and the grains behave as though they are floating in water.

Selection of the final mix of ground improvement technologies was based on optimizing a balance between cost, construction time, performance, and risk. Ranjbar et al. The soft ground in this area consists of peat soil (67m thick) where natural water content, wn=300800% and unit weight, t=1011kN/m3 overlaid on a sand layer of 56m thick and soft clay of 1415m thick. The first was that trees had been removed from the slope, thus allowing the water table to rise. This chapter reports on some of the challenges that were faced and overcome, and it presents the process that is now used routinely on Australian projects. Moreover, according to results of leaching studies, metals are leached most readily at low pH and organics at high pH, so it is preferable to use tyre shreds in environments with a near neutral pH (ASTM D6270-98) (ASTM, 2004). These semiempirical charts have been developed for different fine contents and for different intensities of earthquake magnitude. Furthermore, rising environmental concerns have made Government to make strict regulations to keep check on waste disposal from industries and make them accountable to remediation of wastes. View from valley showing ski lodges and slip. The alignment of the Ballina Bypass is shown in Fig.

Dumping RHA cause great environment threat to the land. Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which a saturated cohesionless soil loses its shear strength when subjected to vibratory ground motion during an earthquake.

At temperatures up to 2000C, SiO vapours is produced from the reduction of high-purity quartz to silicon. The liquefaction of sandy soil results in a large amount of damage to buildings, highway embankments, retaining structures, and other civil engineering structures. Table 11.2. V.R. 9.1. The spherical and glass texture of particles surface of slag are the main factors in improving the concrete workability (ASTM C989, 1994).

Figure 1.

In this chapter, a brief overview of the use of TDA in highway embankment and roadway construction in North America is presented. Assessment of liquefaction potential in soils based on (A) SPT (B) CPT (C) Vs and (D) BPT results. By 3050% replacement of cement with GGBFS, concrete workability improves however there will be no increase in workability beyond this amount. The slip occurred without warning after the embankment had been in place for over 40 years, as mentioned above. If the liquefiable soil is limited to a shallow depth, the best option could be to remove and replace the soil with a nonliquefiable one. The use of WFS in such various applications as alternative to traditional materials can help multiple ways in conserving the conventional materials, reducing cost and reducing burden on environment, hence benefitting country and environment. The embankment material consisted of 15% fine gravel and 15% fines, the rest of the sample consisting of sand-sized particles, and so it could be classified by the Unified Classification system as a silty sand. The northern half of the route climbed through rolling hills. This phenomenon is more prominent in loose saturated sands. High cement content in concrete may cause problems in certain types of structures including an increase in the shrinkage potential, cost of construction, and heat of hydration (Yadegaran et al., 2007). The best improvement in the mechanical properties of young concrete was obtained by using metakaolin. Transformation of glass mainly of volcanic origin, X-ray amorphous clay, aluminosilicate gels, plagioclase, nepheline, biogeneous SiO2 or clay minerals produce zeolites, which are microporous crystalline aluminosilicates composed of TO4 tetrahedra (T=Si, Al) with oxygen atoms connecting neighbouring tetrahedra. The Canadian perspective with regards to the use of TDA is presented based on a well-documented case study from Eastern Canada. It was found that decreasing the vacuum pressure somehow correlates with the quantity of ground settlement. Richard Kelly, Theva Muttuvel, in Ground Improvement Case Histories, 2015.

statistical and probabilistic approach, energy dissipation approach, etc. The DSM technique allowed construction of columns tapered in length for a gradual settlement transition away from embankments. The effective stresses in the soil (i.e., the stresses in the soil skeleton) that control the available shear strength depend on the water pressures. By replacing 4070% of ordinary Portland cement with ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), the rate of bleeding increases. The Swedish standard [6] and the Norwegian standard [7] are two of the pioneers which have attempted to provide minimum requirements for safe and reliable performance of pavement foundations supported on EPS geofoam blocks. Table9.3. 11.2. 6.32.

This page was last edited on 18 June 2022, at 11:14. Emam and Yehia (2017) reported that by incorporation of more than 10% untreated and calcined zeolite, the workability of concrete decreased and additional mid-range and high-range water reducing admixtures are required to improve workability. Another theory was that heavy rainfall or snowmelt had made the water table rise; a third theory was that a retaining wall constructed at the back of the Alpine Way had channeled more water than usual into the embankment fill. The foundations of this lodge were left in place, indicating that the toe of the slip occurred in the slope above this building. Hillside slips in the past have been responsible for great loss of life, and care has had to be taken to stabilize and continuously monitor the state of these slopes. Top of slide showing Alpine Way and embankment fill.

11.1. It was observed that different mineral admixtures affect properties of young concrete differently.

Piezometers that had been set into the slope showed that the piezometric surface could be at depths of between 1m and 4m. There had been previous slips along the Alpine Way, one having occurred near the adjacent Pindari Lodge in 1964. Anjan Patel, in Geotechnical Investigations and Improvement of Ground Conditions, 2019. Wall or bank to carry a road or rail over low ground or water's edge, Learn how and when to remove this template message, "Compressive strength and thermal properties of sandbentonite mixture", Federal Highway Administration Design Manual: Deep Mixing for Embankment and Foundation Support, of climate and vegetation on railway embankments, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Embankment_(earthworks)&oldid=1093713414, Articles needing additional references from October 2021, All articles needing additional references, Articles with dead external links from January 2018, Articles with permanently dead external links, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. By burning rice husk in boilers, 25% of its weight turn to rice husk ash (RHA). SCC mixtures were prepared by inclusion of various amounts of NZ (020% by weight of cement) at different water/binder (W/B) ratios. All these issues can be tackled by reusing and recycling the waste produced. Different optimum temperature (600850C) and period (112h) for heating kaolin to obtain MK with a high pozzolanic index has been introduced by different researchers. This problem can also be avoided by reducing the quantity of fine tyre pieces, limiting the thickness of the tyre layers to 3m and restricting access of the fill to air and water. In this method the standard penetration test (SPT) blow count is correlated to cyclic stress ratio (CSR), which is calculated as follows: where amax is the peak ground surface acceleration, g is the acceleration of gravity, vo and vo are the total and effective vertical overburden stresses, respectively, and rd is a stress reduction factor at the depth of interest. The advantage of using GGBFS as given by ACI is using an adequate amount of coarse aggregates without compromising the concrete workability and therefore, the mix thickness can be reduced. The only problem that may arise when tyres used as fill material in embankments are not well covered by soil is that self-heating of the tyres is likely to occur; this can be solved by the proper design and construction of each project. Sahoo (201011) investigated the potential of using fly ash in brick manufacturing, highway embankments, as an aggregate material in Portland cement, filling of low lying and mine void areas. The vacuum pressure measured at the pump was about 8592kPa during the vacuum operation. Bouzoubaa et al. Based on these applications, several design manuals have been prepared for various areas of EPS geofoam application.

Haleh Rasekh, Maryam Ghodrat, in Self-Compacting Concrete: Materials, Properties and Applications, 2020. The vacuum pressures measured under the airtight sheet were low at the beginning of operation and gradually increased to 5060kPa prior to the start of embankment operation, as shown in Fig. On the other hand, if the construction site is near existing lifelines, vibratory densification of soils may not be a good option due to the risk of damage to the nearby structures and public utilities. Commonly used pozzolanic powders include coal fly ash, limestone powder, calcined clays, ground glass, and blast furnace slag (Hossain and Lachemi, 2008; Boukendakdji et al., 2009; Topu and Uygunolu, 2010; Liu, 2011; Sivakumar et al., 2011). To intersect an embankment without a high flyover, a series of tunnels can consist of a section of high tensile strength viaduct (typically built of brick and/or metal) or pair of facing abutments for a bridge. Potential applications of WFS in Civil Engineering works can be highway embankment filling [3337]; flowable fills; in road construction; in soil stabilization and reinforcement [38]; hydraulic barrier or liner [36,39] in cement manufacturing; mortar making [40]; pavement blocks, brick blocks [3,10,11,20,25,4144]; asphalt concrete [44]. The geotechnical monitoring used during construction was essential to the success of the project. (2008) investigated rice husk ash blended cement with respect to assessment of optimal level of replacement for strength and permeability properties of concrete. Figure 10.2(a) shows the field monitoring data. The fact that the embankment slope was steeper than the angle of repose (i.e., 37) may be because there was some cohesive strength and soil suction in the soil above the water table, as well as some tree-trunks and vegetable matter reinforcing the slope. Liquefaction may occur in the following forms: Increased lateral pressure on retaining walls. The liquefaction of sandy soil results in a large amount of damage to buildings, Structural Integrity AssessmentExamples and Case Studies, . A comparison between different types of ground-improvement techniques for mitigation of soil liquefaction (Morales and Morales, 2003), J.C. Small, H.G. Asbestos cement pipe at top of slope, thought to have leaked before slide. investigated the potential of using fly ash in brick manufacturing, The practice of disposing off WFS in landfills is getting unfavorable because of increasing cost of disposal. Creating the smooth transition required a gradual increase in settlement moving away from the bridges. Fly ash is one of the materials to replace part of cement in concrete.

Under unfavorable conditions, therefore, a slight change in the level of the water table could cause the water table to rise to a higher level in the slope, thus causing it to fail. Movement of the embankment could have become large enough over time to pull open the joints in the water pipe and allow water to leak into the embankment fill. Figure 6.31 shows the schematic cross section of the RE wall supported on stone columns. Following those efforts, Stark et al. The southern half of the route traversed a low-lying floodplain associated with the Richmond River. Beneficial reuse of WFS span a variety of applications related to infrastructure engineering and rehabilitation works, e.g., highway embankment construction, ground improvement etc. The colluvial slope material consisted of 20% fine gravel, 60% sand-size particles, and 20% fines, making it also a silty sand.

We use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content and ads. The most likely scenario for the failure is that the Alpine Way embankment and the colluvial material on which it was founded were already fairly close to failure, as indicated by the slip circle analysis. The design guidelines given in ASTM D6270-98 Standard Practice for Use of Scrap Tires in Civil Engineering Applications (ASTM, 2004) have been developed in order to minimise this reaction by minimising factors that could possibly create favourable conditions for exothermic reactions. For example, some mineral additives including fly ash may increase the workability, durability, and long-term properties of concrete (Malhotra and Mehta, 2002). In addition to this, tyre chips have high sorption capacity for volatile organic chemicals, which means that tyres can be used to eliminate chemicals from contaminated water (Park et al., 1996). Removal of trees was examined and found not to have taken place on the section of embankment where the slip had happened. Although they appear to involve basic design parameters (e.g., thickness of soil layer), they merely discuss the performance of EPS geofoam per se, or as a part of pavement foundations. (2013) investigated the fresh and hardened properties of SCC with natural zeolite (NZ). The slope of the embankment had to be estimated, as it no longer existed after the slip, and contours from aerial photographs and examination of the embankment at other locations indicated that the slope could be between 45 and 59 to the horizontal. Field monitoring data of a conventional vacuum consolidation method. Methods (charts) have since been developed based on the cone penetration test (CPT), shear wave velocity (Vs), and Baker penetration test (BPT) measurements, as shown in Fig. Potential applications of WFS in Civil Engineering works can be , Low compared to soil or sand, up to 50% less, On weak base: lower than with conventional backfill, On weak base: smaller than granular backfill. Figure 2. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. This guideline can be addressed as the most detailed reference presenting design concepts and procedures for designing EPS geofoam embankments (at least based on the available research up to 2004). On one hand it is necessary to increase the mortar content to make a better-quality SCC and on the other hand an increase of the cement-based mortar results in some technical problems. SiO vapours oxidize and condense in the low-temperature zone to tiny particles consisting of non-crystalline silica. This document [8] comes with a supplementary guideline prepared by Stark et al. It demolished Carinya Lodge, killing one person, before the earth flow pushed the wreckage of Carinya Lodge into Bimbadeen Lodge further down the slope, killing a further 17 people. Fly ash concrete has various geotechnical applications such as construction of roads, Embankment, dams and reservoirs and mine filling depends on strength of composites. The original soil covering the slope consisted of a layer of topsoil 0.3m thick and was underlain by 0.70.9m of colluvium, which was in turn underlain by the residual soil that had been produced by weathering of the granodiorite bedrock. In order to analyse the feasibility of tyre rubber as a potential fill material, its engineering properties need investigating. A comparison of the different field test methods used for the assessment of soil liquefaction is presented in Table 11.1. Figure 4. In addition, tyres prevent rock slides and help to limit erosion in inaccessible arid areas. The slip took place at 11.30 p.m. on July 30, when skiers were asleep in their ski lodges. Section through the Alpine Way and Carinya Lodge. Results showed that with the inclusion of NZ, SCC can be produced with changes in flowability, passing ability and viscosity. Figure 6.31. The use of waste tyre rubber in civil engineering works, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency 1990; Bossher, North American Overview and a Canadian Perspective on the Use of Tire-Derived Aggregate in Highway Embankment Construction, Ground Improvement Using Deep Vibro Techniques, The New Pantai Expressway is a privatized highway in Malaysia. Figure 10.2(d) shows the vacuum pressure difference between at the pump and under the airtight sheet.

The liquefaction potential of soils can be minimized by (1) cementation imparting cohesion to the soil grains, and (2) giving proper drainage provisions and densifying the soils to counter the generation of pore water pressure and its ill effects during earthquake. This is typical of weathered granodiorite, where weathering leaves only sand-sized quartz particles from the parent rock. Water being introduced into the slope was therefore the prime target of investigators, and several theories were put forward. In total, four locations were treated using vibro replacement to support, High Pressure for Vacuum Consolidation Method Using Air-Water Separation System, Dry Soil Mixing for the Ballina Bypass Motorway Upgrade, Case examples of some geotechnical applications, Geotechnical Investigations and Improvement of Ground Conditions. The ski lodges in that part of Thredbo village where the slip occurred were located on a fairly steep slope beneath a road embankment for the Alpine Way, constructed some 42 years earlier, in 1955, by pushing soil into place with a bulldozer. It can be seen that the amount of vacuum pressure difference between at the pump and under the airtight sheet was larger than the amount of pressure change due to elevation head loss. This is probably due to some leakage of vacuum pressure through the intermediate sand layer. Metakaolin was also introduced to the SCC mixture by up to 30% of cement weight (Kannan and Ganesan, 2012). A large volume of material had slipped from the, Self-Compacting Concrete: Materials, Properties and Applications. Tyre chips are known to leach some organic and inorganic contaminants, such as manganese and iron, but this is not at a level whereby they could be classified as hazardous wastes; however, they can be used in areas of high contamination levels since they act as a sorbent medium (Edil, 2004). In the past, many people have lost their lives due to either man-made or natural slopes collapsing or beginning to flow. It is worth mentioning that research on EPS geofoam is still ongoing and these guidelines may be updated in the future. Moreover, the backfill behind a retaining wall can be constructed with geomaterials; this can lead to reduced earth pressure on the structure and allows a thinner retaining wall to be used. This leads to protecting the embedded steel from corrosion and a reduction in the diffusion of harmful ions by reducing calcium hydroxide content (King, 2012). Raju, W. Sondermann, in Ground Improvement Case Histories, 2015. In this regard the most common procedure used for the assessment of soil liquefaction is a semiempirical method originally proposed by Seed and Idriss (1971).

ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. The road was constructed only as an access road for the Snowy Mountains hydroelectric scheme, and contained logs from trees that had been pushed over by the bulldozer. The consolidation settlement induced by vacuum pressure and embankment load was about 241cm. About 55kg (25%) of RHA is produced by burning 220kg (22%) of husk as a result of 1000kg of paddy milled. The most recent reference that includes chapters on EPS geofoam is Ground Modification Methods Reference Manual of FHWA by Schaefer et al. Nipon Teerachaikulpanich, Toshiaki Kosaka, in Ground Improvement Case Histories, 2015. These difficulties were progressively overcome, and a process was developed that delivered the required outcomes with certainty. ), using which assessment of soil liquefaction can be done. However, the most critical element is the presence of water in the slope. Since all these methods are semiempirical, their reliability is dependent upon the amount and accuracy of data collected from the site. Powders significantly affect the requirement of SP, deformability, filling capacity, and strength of concrete (Trkel and Kandemir, 2010). Highway embankments made of heavy materials are often built over soft ground and this can sometimes lead to settlement and instability of the embankment. The potential for pipes buried in man-made fills to burst or leak poses another danger, and this should be considered carefully if there is any evidence of soil creep or movement of the fill. The superstructure of Carinya Lodge and the soil flow were then carried on down the slope onto the Bimbadeen Lodge below, completely destroying that structure. [10], which mostly presents a summary and guide to previous resources. Yijin et al. A road, railway line, or canal is normally raised onto an embankment made of compacted soil (typically clay or rock-based) to avoid a change in level required by the terrain, the alternatives being either to have an unacceptable change in level or detour to follow a contour.

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